By Eva Howard
"Racially segregated schools are inherently unequal."
- Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court Ruling
Inequality has plagued the American system of education since its creation. Through a variety of ways, intentional or unintentional, the education system has continually preserved American white supremacy.
The Civil Rights era of the 20th century played a large role in helping diminish some of these disparities; at the same time, it served to highlight some of the country’s biggest injustices, namely, the relationship between race and education.
The Civil Rights era of the 20th century played a large role in helping diminish some of these disparities; at the same time, it served to highlight some of the country’s biggest injustices, namely, the relationship between race and education.
Plessy v. Ferguson
In 1892, Homer Plessy, a black man from Louisiana, was jailed after sitting in a “white” railroad car. His lawyer argued that the law which legalized this discrimination, Louisiana’s Separate Car Act, violated the 13th and 14th amendments. The case carried all the way to the Supreme Court, and in 1896, the Act was upheld. Thus, the term and ideology of “separate but equal” for whites and blacks was born. The landmark decision highly affected in basically all aspects throughout the United States thereafter and greatly assisted in creating what is known as the Jim Crow era, marked by “Jim Crow” laws that openly discriminated against anyone who wasn’t white. The “separate but equal” system was enacted into the American education system by the creation of single-race schools.
In 1892, Homer Plessy, a black man from Louisiana, was jailed after sitting in a “white” railroad car. His lawyer argued that the law which legalized this discrimination, Louisiana’s Separate Car Act, violated the 13th and 14th amendments. The case carried all the way to the Supreme Court, and in 1896, the Act was upheld. Thus, the term and ideology of “separate but equal” for whites and blacks was born. The landmark decision highly affected in basically all aspects throughout the United States thereafter and greatly assisted in creating what is known as the Jim Crow era, marked by “Jim Crow” laws that openly discriminated against anyone who wasn’t white. The “separate but equal” system was enacted into the American education system by the creation of single-race schools.
Photo retrieved from https://lh3.ggpht.com/-KeYyBZGgshg/ULBHJnDY61I/AAAAAAAApus/DwtaWTPJaac/s1600/Unequal1.jpg
Brown v. Board of Education
Education was a key component of the Civil Rights Movement. However, educational reform’s contingency was made possible by one landmark decision in 1954: the case of Brown v. Board of Education. According to Dr. Robinson of Alabama State University, Brown v. Board of Education was the biggest turning point of not only the push for educational equality but of the Civil Rights Movement as a whole.
In actuality, there were five landmark cases that came to be consolidated as Brown v. Board of Education. They were Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Briggs v. Elliot, Davis v. Board of Education of Prince Edward County (VA.), Boiling v. Sharpe, and Gebhart v. Ethel. Each case focused on the constitutionality of legal (though inherently unethical) segregation of “separate but equal” public schools. All were presented to the Supreme Court where they were condensed down into Brown v. Board of Education. All plaintiffs were represented by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP); the lawyers included the famous Thurgood Marshall. The Supreme Court ruled on May 17, 1954, that not only were the tangible factors (i.e., teachers, buildings, supplies) highly unequal, but the idea of separation was unequal in and of itself. More specifically, this separation violated the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment.
Though this case was a huge milestone in the fight for equal educational opportunities, execution was slow and ineffective for many years after.
Education was a key component of the Civil Rights Movement. However, educational reform’s contingency was made possible by one landmark decision in 1954: the case of Brown v. Board of Education. According to Dr. Robinson of Alabama State University, Brown v. Board of Education was the biggest turning point of not only the push for educational equality but of the Civil Rights Movement as a whole.
In actuality, there were five landmark cases that came to be consolidated as Brown v. Board of Education. They were Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Briggs v. Elliot, Davis v. Board of Education of Prince Edward County (VA.), Boiling v. Sharpe, and Gebhart v. Ethel. Each case focused on the constitutionality of legal (though inherently unethical) segregation of “separate but equal” public schools. All were presented to the Supreme Court where they were condensed down into Brown v. Board of Education. All plaintiffs were represented by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP); the lawyers included the famous Thurgood Marshall. The Supreme Court ruled on May 17, 1954, that not only were the tangible factors (i.e., teachers, buildings, supplies) highly unequal, but the idea of separation was unequal in and of itself. More specifically, this separation violated the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment.
Though this case was a huge milestone in the fight for equal educational opportunities, execution was slow and ineffective for many years after.
Photo retrieved from http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/brownvboard/brownnews.jpg
The Southern Christian Leadership Conference
The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) played a key role in the Civil Rights Movement. In addition to organizing major protests and marches, the SCLC also set out to educate the African American public, not on the subjects of math or science but on the content tested voter-registration literacy exams, driver's license tests, etc. Organizers (namely Esau Jenkins), with help from the Highlander Center (an organization that assists in grassroots movements), opened citizenship schools first in 1954 where unpaid volunteers taught the adult students; the schools also focused on teaching political policy in time for the elections. The SCLC took over the schools in 1957 and began their "Crusade for Citizenship" that same year. In addition to the more established citizenship schools, voting clinics were also opened. The campaign began in South Carolina but later spread across the south. The campaign was quite successful and lasted through the early sixties; at one point, the program had over 10,000 teachers in 200 schools.
The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) played a key role in the Civil Rights Movement. In addition to organizing major protests and marches, the SCLC also set out to educate the African American public, not on the subjects of math or science but on the content tested voter-registration literacy exams, driver's license tests, etc. Organizers (namely Esau Jenkins), with help from the Highlander Center (an organization that assists in grassroots movements), opened citizenship schools first in 1954 where unpaid volunteers taught the adult students; the schools also focused on teaching political policy in time for the elections. The SCLC took over the schools in 1957 and began their "Crusade for Citizenship" that same year. In addition to the more established citizenship schools, voting clinics were also opened. The campaign began in South Carolina but later spread across the south. The campaign was quite successful and lasted through the early sixties; at one point, the program had over 10,000 teachers in 200 schools.
"I'd say just about the most important thing we did in the movement was start the citizenship schools ... The people there [John's Island, SC] wanted to vote — but they couldn't read and write. They asked Highlander to help them set up a school. We helped them raise the money, and gave whatever help we could, but everything about the school was up to the people. They found Bernice Robinson, a beautician, to teach. Bernice and her "students" worked out a curriculum. They had to teach it all in only two months, January and February, between the picking and the planting seasons. They started by learning to read and write their names, then the words to hymns they knew. They learned to hold a pencil and read and write stories about the work that they did; finally, they tackled the Constitution, and the actual registering to vote."
- Myles Horton of the Highlander Center
Educational Reform, Lyndon B. Johnson, and the Sixties
When John F. Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, Lyndon B. Johnson became president. Johnson was hard-working and a stickler for ending social injustice. His drive was evident in his policies that aimed to better education for all. Johnson’s goals for a better America took shape in the programs created under his “Great Society” vision. His Great Society policies were very effective; they were often focused on education and always spotlighted advancement of civil rights.
When John F. Kennedy was assassinated in 1963, Lyndon B. Johnson became president. Johnson was hard-working and a stickler for ending social injustice. His drive was evident in his policies that aimed to better education for all. Johnson’s goals for a better America took shape in the programs created under his “Great Society” vision. His Great Society policies were very effective; they were often focused on education and always spotlighted advancement of civil rights.
Perhaps his most effective law was the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA). Targeting the achievement gap between minority students of lower socio-economic status and the wealthy and (typically) white students, one aspect of this this federal law was that any school that had at least 40% of its students classified as low income met standards to be designated as Title I. A Title I designation would result in extra allocated funding so that the school could improve the quality of education. The ultimate goal of the Title I program was to provide a better quality education to lower income students (who, as previously stated, were usually African-American, Hispanic, etc.) so that they could escape poverty as adults. Another of Johnson’s Great Society programs was Head Start. The program implemented an eight-week long summer program for children of low-income households to prepare them for entering school the following fall. Over 560,000 children attended the inaugural session. In addition to preparing the students for school, Head Start also provided medical and dental care and preschool classes to the underserved. Both the ESEA and Head Start are still in effect today, and though Johnson’s programs effectively tackled civil rights issues and education, by no means did they abolish inequality.
One Woman’s Experiences with Segregation in Alabama
While on our class trip to Alabama, we stopped in Birmingham to interview a participant in the Children’s March of 1963. Her name was Janice Kelsey, and this is what she had to say about her own experience with segregated Alabama in the early 60’s:
While on our class trip to Alabama, we stopped in Birmingham to interview a participant in the Children’s March of 1963. Her name was Janice Kelsey, and this is what she had to say about her own experience with segregated Alabama in the early 60’s:
At the end of the video, Mrs. Kelsey began to speak about the differences between her school and a white school in Birmingham. She didn't know the extent to which the disparities were until Rev. James Bell began to describe the differences between her school and the local white school at one of the mass meetings; for example, the white school had a whole room of brand new type-writers to practice typing on, and Mrs. Kelsey's school only had one for the whole school.
During the interview, our classmate Kannon Hall asked Mrs. Kelsey specifically about racial discrimination in the American education system. This is what she said:
“...He said I was receiving a second class education. And I agreed with him.”
- Janice Kelsey, Children's March participant
One of our classmates, Mia Benavidez, shared her uncle's experience with blatant racism at the University of Texas in the 1960's.
Personal Reflection
Immediately after my return from the Civil Rights tour back in November, I asked my mom about what she remembered about integration programs when she was in school. Though she was born in 1961, by the time she began attending the public elementary school in 1968, implementation was underway where she lived (Columbia, Missouri). "I remember busing had started when I was in third grade. I had to change schools because of the new rules."
Though my part of the project focused on the 50's and 60's, I began to think about racial inequality/segregation in schools in my more local community and San Antonio as a whole. I attended Alamo Heights public schools from first through eighth grade. I received a pretty good education throughout both elementary and middle school. The schools I attended were always well funded. This extra money that came from the Alamo Heights Foundation paid for brand new MacBook laptops, the newest technology, well-funded athletic programs, etc. The racial makeup of Alamo Heights High School, according to GreatSchools.org, is 63% white, 33% Hispanic, and 2% African-American. I never really noticed this lack of diversity and took the district's advantages for granted.
Now, I attend school in the North East Independent School District, a likewise amazing district with great schools, great teachers, and great academics. Throughout my almost three years here, I have noticed a lack in funding in what nowadays could be considered basic school supplies/necessities: computers break on a regular basis, our building is basically falling apart, and so on. Even with its deficits of certain supplies, NEISD is in no way one of the "poorer" school districts of San Antonio. What we lack in the newest technology we make up for in the quality of education and great teachers; unfortunately, this cannot be said for other school districts that are considered "poorer," such as Harlandale ISD or San Antonio ISD, both of which are made up primarily of minorities. Every other school district in San Antonio is far more diverse than AHISD in racial makeup, and I think this is a perfect example of present day educational inequality based on race as well as outright racism. As previously stated, AHISD has more money than every other school district in the San Antonio area, and the district itself was created out of the white flight of the 20th century -- when white citizens would leave a newly-integrating community to create a new all-white neighborhood. Its expensive homes prevent those with a lower socio-economic status from moving in, and thus the district remains non-diverse due to the statistical fact that, typically, minority families make less money than white families. Overall, this project made me realize the institutionalized racism that is still blatantly present in our society today. Though the issue itself is very frustrating, the progress that the United States has made in equality is somewhat encouraging that someday all American children will receive a high-quality education.
Finally, while doing research to create the timeline, I came across the fact that a key Supreme Court decision that furthered educational disparity based on race/ethnicity was a case that involved San Antonio Independent School District. This fact just made my group's topic hit home even more. It also reminded me that anyone who wasn't white was highly discriminated against, not just African Americans. This unsettling fact came up in conversation with one of my friends, Aria. Her dad immigrated to the United States from Mexico in the mid twentieth century; she began telling me about how his best friend was white and how when they would go to restaurants or other public places, Hispanic people were not allowed to enter. They would enter a restaurant and would be asked to leave since her dad was Mexican. This story brought up the thought that, had the all-encompassing system of blatant racism persisted into the 21st century, we would have faced relatively identical situations.
Immediately after my return from the Civil Rights tour back in November, I asked my mom about what she remembered about integration programs when she was in school. Though she was born in 1961, by the time she began attending the public elementary school in 1968, implementation was underway where she lived (Columbia, Missouri). "I remember busing had started when I was in third grade. I had to change schools because of the new rules."
Though my part of the project focused on the 50's and 60's, I began to think about racial inequality/segregation in schools in my more local community and San Antonio as a whole. I attended Alamo Heights public schools from first through eighth grade. I received a pretty good education throughout both elementary and middle school. The schools I attended were always well funded. This extra money that came from the Alamo Heights Foundation paid for brand new MacBook laptops, the newest technology, well-funded athletic programs, etc. The racial makeup of Alamo Heights High School, according to GreatSchools.org, is 63% white, 33% Hispanic, and 2% African-American. I never really noticed this lack of diversity and took the district's advantages for granted.
Now, I attend school in the North East Independent School District, a likewise amazing district with great schools, great teachers, and great academics. Throughout my almost three years here, I have noticed a lack in funding in what nowadays could be considered basic school supplies/necessities: computers break on a regular basis, our building is basically falling apart, and so on. Even with its deficits of certain supplies, NEISD is in no way one of the "poorer" school districts of San Antonio. What we lack in the newest technology we make up for in the quality of education and great teachers; unfortunately, this cannot be said for other school districts that are considered "poorer," such as Harlandale ISD or San Antonio ISD, both of which are made up primarily of minorities. Every other school district in San Antonio is far more diverse than AHISD in racial makeup, and I think this is a perfect example of present day educational inequality based on race as well as outright racism. As previously stated, AHISD has more money than every other school district in the San Antonio area, and the district itself was created out of the white flight of the 20th century -- when white citizens would leave a newly-integrating community to create a new all-white neighborhood. Its expensive homes prevent those with a lower socio-economic status from moving in, and thus the district remains non-diverse due to the statistical fact that, typically, minority families make less money than white families. Overall, this project made me realize the institutionalized racism that is still blatantly present in our society today. Though the issue itself is very frustrating, the progress that the United States has made in equality is somewhat encouraging that someday all American children will receive a high-quality education.
Finally, while doing research to create the timeline, I came across the fact that a key Supreme Court decision that furthered educational disparity based on race/ethnicity was a case that involved San Antonio Independent School District. This fact just made my group's topic hit home even more. It also reminded me that anyone who wasn't white was highly discriminated against, not just African Americans. This unsettling fact came up in conversation with one of my friends, Aria. Her dad immigrated to the United States from Mexico in the mid twentieth century; she began telling me about how his best friend was white and how when they would go to restaurants or other public places, Hispanic people were not allowed to enter. They would enter a restaurant and would be asked to leave since her dad was Mexican. This story brought up the thought that, had the all-encompassing system of blatant racism persisted into the 21st century, we would have faced relatively identical situations.